I. AMHERST'S BACKGROUND
1. A BRIEF POLITICAL HISTORY OF AMHERST
The religious orthodoxy that led John Russell and his band of 16 "strict congregationalists" to the Connecticut Valley in the 1600's had been diluted somewhat by the late 1720's when the first families, known as the "eastern inhabitants" of Hadley, settled in Amherst. Those who traveled beyond the "New Swamp"-the Smiths, the Nashes, the Cowlses, the Boltwoods, the Dickinsons, and others-came as farmers. Soon tavern keepers, grist and sawmill owners, a doctor, and, of course, a minister swelled their ranks. Recognized in 1735 as the Third Precinct of Hadley, the area had its own church and cemetery and limited political autonomy in the form of Town Meeting. The settlers, as their numbers grew, chafed under political dependence on Hadley. In 1759, as a result of local petitions, the Governor, the Governor's Council, and the General Court of the Bay Colony approved the creation of a "separate and distinct district. " The new district was named, as were towns in Maine, New York, New Hampshire, and Virginia, after Major-General Jeffery Amherst, hero of the French and Indian Wars.
As a "district" Amherst had all the rights of a town, such as electing officers and levying taxes, but it did not have the right to send a representative to the General Court. Full township status was not granted by the Commonwealth until 1786-the same year that many Amherst men, answering the call-to-arms issued by Daniel Shays of Pelham, vainly sought to oppose repressive taxation by and inadequate representation in Massachusetts' post-revolutionary government.
The romantic view of the New England town as politically placid has always been at odds with reality. To be sure, shared "Yankee" values of thrift, hard work, and Protestantism dominated in the early years, but political disputes agitated the town even then. Men of property often found themselves at odds with their less fortunate fellows. Although many Amherst patriots secured honored places in the annals of the Revolution, the town had its share of Tories-including the minister, the doctor, and the justice of the peace-who remained loyal to George III. Many of its most prominent citizens looked with suspicion, if not horror, upon the followers of Daniel Shays, even though Amherst was largely an "insurgent" town in 1787.
Local issues, too, such as schooling, the location of highways, and the town's obligation to the needy, often sparked intense debate-both in Town Meeting nd in the taverns. In predominantly Protestant Amherst, religion even caused discord from time to time. Indeed, so deep were the divisions between members of the First and Second Congregational churches in the early nineteenth cenury that Triangle Street, laid out in 1820, was designed-at least local legend has it so-in order that members of the Second Church might avoid passing the First Church on their way to worship.
During the first half of the nineteenth century, manufacturers of carriages, textiles, and hats opened up new occupations to Amherst residents. Although insufficient water power, lack of easy access to major markets, and increasing competition from large urban centers kept Amherst from becoming a classic mill town, the brief industrial boom left a permanent mark. The town rosters of those marching with the Grand Army of the Republic during the Civil War reflect the change: Irish immigrants and former slaves-along with Dickinsons, Kelloggs, and Smiths-sent their sons to preserve the Union.
The nineteenth century was also a time when Amherst began to gain celebrity as a center of education-with the founding of Amherst College in 1821 and Massachusetts Agricultural College in 1863. Although conflicting interests of the community and the institutions proved to be of greater concern in the twentieth century than in the nineteenth, mutual suspicion occasionally distorted relations between town and gown in the earlier period-as when Amherst College students established an anti-slavery society in 1833 and when many farmers opposed the establishment of the agricultural college, especially the $50,000 to be contributed by the town.
Amherst's population remained stable during the first half of the twentieth entury. The town began to grow rapidly after World War II when the agricultural college, which had been renamed Massachusetts State College in 1931, became a university in 1947. It and Amherst College, while still not dominating the town's economy, became Amherst's major employers. The 1957 Town Report proclaimed on its cover: "Education ... Our Industry. "
An expanding population brought about changes in government. In 1938, the traditional open Town Meeting had been replaced by a representative meeting. An even more profound change occurred in 1953 when Amherst voted to accept the Town Manager Act, which transferred much of the authority historically held by elected officials to a professional manager and reduced the number of elected positions.
Amherst's growth accelerated during the 1960's, when the university nearly tripled in size, and continued with the founding of Hampshire College in 1971. As the ranks of the professional classes swelled, agriculture, industry, and small business became less dominant. As the three schools attracted more students and faculty worldwide, the town's already diverse population became even more cosmopolitan. In the late 1970's and the 1980's, while Amherst grew only modestly, its appeal as a university town in a rural setting attracted retirees and professional people who worked in other communities.
With the extension of suffrage to eighteen-year olds in 1971, voter registration increased by 50% between the 1968 and 1972 presidential elections. Although the proportion of students voting in local elections remains small, Town Meeting almost always has undergraduates among its members.
The changing population and the lower voting age are reflected in Amherst's overwhelming support of progressive or liberal candidates in state and national elections. At the local level, the rapid changes have sharpened awareness of political differences among various groups.
Even though dissent in Amherst has often been vigorous, it has rarely led to alienation. Rather, disagreements have been moderated through what Frank Prentice Rand called "that most democratic of legislative bodies," the New England town meeting. This remains the case even with the rapid changes in the town's population, the plethora of federal and state regulations that now complicate local decision making, and the increasing activities of special interest groups. Whether members celebrate the New England tradition of individualism or argue for governmental solutions, Town Meeting continues as a forum for diverse opinion, as it effects compromises and encourages democracy through direct participation and observation.
2. OTHER UNITS OF GOVERNMENT
AMHERST AND THE STATE
Amherst, like all the 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts, is a "creature of the state." Under the Township Acts of 1636, 1641, and 1647, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony granted municipalities the authority to manage their own affairs, to make and enforce by-laws, and to choose their own officials. The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, adopted in 1780, did not explicitly establish town government, but gave broad authority to the state legislature, which in 1785 formally recognized the towns and their powers and duties as previously established.
The Home Rule Amendment of 1966 and the subsequent Home Rule Act reaffirmed the rights of cities and towns to make decisions on matters not preempted by state law and gave them authority and a mechanism to write or rewrite their own charters. The state continues to regulate the town's conduct in many areas, including education, public health, public safety, highways, voting procedures, and especially finance. In addition, the amount and nature of state aid strongly influence municipal decisions.
AMHERST AND THE COUNTY
Massachusetts' fourteen counties, like its cities and towns, are also creatures of the state. New England counties are less important political divisions than those elsewhere in the United States. Amherst is one of twenty municipalities in Hampshire County. Northampton is the county seat.
Functions. The state has assigned responsibility to the counties for county jails, registries of deeds, certain roads and bridges, and retirement programs of towns like Amherst that do not operate their own.
Counties may choose to provide other programs. At present, Hampshire County operates a 120-bed long-term care facility, helps coordinate and fund some human services, and provides regional services to its municipalities and towns for group health and life insurance, cooperative purchasing, fire fighting training, and emergency communications. The Hampshire County Housing Authority serves smaller communities. The county initiates shared services among the small towns such as tax assessment, building inspection, and recycling.
Although counties no longer administer the courts, county buildings house the district and superior courts and court records. County boundaries define the electoral districts for certain court offices.
Governance.
Charter, major officials. In 1988, the voters of Hampshire County approved the second of only two county home-rule charters in Massachusetts. The charter provides for a Board of County Commissioners, who are elected for two-year terms, a five-member Executive Committee, and an appointed County Administrator. The Register of Deeds and the Sheriff, who is also chief correctional officer, are elected for six-year terms. The Treasurer, formerly elected, is appointed by the Administrator, subject to confirmation by the board. The Treasurer also serves as the Chair of the County Retirement Advisory Board. The county has its own personnel board.
Commissioners. Each town or city elects at least one commissioner. Municipalities with population over 10% of the total county population have an additional representative for each 10% or portion thereof. Amherst elects three commissioners. Voting on the board is weighted according to population.
The board acts as a legislative body, approving the budget and setting policy. It supervises the administration of all departments except those headed by other elected officials.
The Executive Committee is elected by and from the Commission. It works with the County Administrator, interpreting and implementing the policies of the full board and proposing changes in policy.
The County Administrator advises the Executive Committee and Board of Commissioners and is chief administrative officer.
Finances. Massachusetts counties have no power to tax either individuals or municipalities. The county budget is determined by the Board of Commissioners, but must be approved by the state's Finance Review Board.
County government is funded primarily by direct and indirect payments for services. State funding for the jail is the largest source of revenues. The longterm care facility is self-supporting, while the registry of deeds generates revenues. Other sources of revenue include state aid and municipal assessments.
Future of county government. County government is in a state of flux. There is widespread discussion of major changes, including either outright abolition or state takeover of major programs. At the same time, severe budgetary constraints continue to reduce Hampshire County's ability to provide optional services.
FIGURE 1 HERE (to be added)
AMHERST AND THE REGION
PIONEER VALLEY PLANNING COMMISSION (PVPC)
Established in 1962, the Pioneer Valley Planning Commission encompasses the 43 cities and towns of Hampden and Hampshire Counties and is one of thirteen regional planning agencies that cover the entire state. Its governance, powers, and duties are determined by state law, primarily Chapter 40B of the General Laws.
Functions. The principal purpose of PVPC is to foster planning on a regional basis. The PVPC is an advisory body to the member communities. It makes plans and projections for land use, transportation, housing, industrial development, environmental protection, historical preservation, community development and many other regional issues and projects. The PVPC acts as a clearinghouse for grant applications, conducts environmental reviews of proposed development projects, and provides technical assistance to its member cities and towns based upon governing policies and procedures established by the Commission. The Commission also serves as the region's data center and has an extensive archive of both regional and local maps.
Representation. The commission is composed of one representative from each municipality in the PVPC's planning district. The planning board of the city or town elects a PVPC commissioner from among its members. The chief elected official(s) of member municipalities are also strongly encouraged to appoint an alternate representative who need not be a planning board member. Each community has a single, unweighted vote. Day-to-day oversight of the Commission's work activities, budget and professional staff is the responsibility of a nine-member Executive Committee which is composed of the five officers of the PVPC and four Commissioners elected by the Commission.
Funding. The PVPC is funded by a wide array of grant programs and an annual per capita assessment of member communities. The assessment is determined by the member cities and towns and is currently fifteen cents per capita, the lowest rate in Massachusetts.
HAMPSHIRE EDUCATIONAL COLLABORATIVE (HEC)
Functions. HEC is a voluntary association of school districts in the county. It offers programs in special education and staff development.
Governance. HEC's Board of Governors is composed of one member of the school committee of each member district. Voting is weighted on the basis of enrollment. The board sets policy, determines programs, and establishes the budget.
Funding. Member school districts contribute to HEC according to the enrollment in collaborative programs and the total number of pupils in each district.
EASTERN HAMPSHIRE REGIONAL REFUSE DISTRICT (EHRRD)
Functions. EHRRD was formed in 1990 and charged with the disposal of solid waste generated within its borders. It is composed of the towns of Amherst, Hadley, and Belchertown. Pelham, Leverett, and Shutesbury are associate members, with the right to use the district's facilities, but no voice in decision making.
The district is currently working on a master plan. Any district facility must be within the district and must be approved by the town meeting of the town in which it will be built.
Governance. The District is governed by a nine-member Board of Supervisors. Three representatives from each member town are appointed by its select board for staggered three-year terms. Each town has one vote, which is determined by a majority of its representatives.
Finances. The district's annual budget and any borrowing by the district must be approved by majority vote of the town meetings of all three member towns.
Once a disposal facility is operational, the district's costs will be met by tipping fees. Population-based assessments will cover start-up costs and will also be used whenever tipping fees are insufficient to meet expenses.
AMHERST AND THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
Federal authority. The role of the federal government has changed since the United States Constitution was drafted 200 years ago. The Constitution, however, remains the basis of the relationship between the United States and municipalities, which are considered subdivisions of the states. The Constitution delegates exclusive powers to the federal government over national defense, interstate commerce, and certain other governmental functions, while the tenth amendment of the Bill of Rights declares that the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states or to the people.
Over the years the United States Supreme Court has interpreted the Constitution as granting the federal government broad authority to regulate state and local activities. Federal regulations include guaranteeing civil rights, protecting the environment, and regulating intrastate commerce where interstate commerce is affected thereby.
Federal funds. In recent years, direct federal assistance has been limited to aid for the school lunch program. In the past, the town has received federal aid for sewers, highways, and community development. Some federal aid is distributed through state and regional entities. Amherst benefits, for example, from federal aid to PVTA.